It took more than 500 scientists and seven years of research, but the first global earthquake hazard map is now complete. How come it took seven whole years? Well, for starters, the scientists had to contend with forces much greater than earthquakes. Try politics.

The above image shows the pattern of major fault lines throughout the Americas.

Unveiled in San Francisco at the American Geophysical Union, the map shows that about 15 per cent of the Earth’s land is in zones of high or very high hazard – which the researchers define as a 10 per cent chance or greater of violent shaking over the next 50 years. Less than half of the planet’s land is considered a low hazard. But coming up with the numbers once the data were in was the easy part, explains the co-ordinator of the international effort, Domenico Giardini of the Swiss Seismological Service in Zurich.

“The standards by which hazard is done is completely different from country to country. It depends on when it was done, what philosophy they adopted, the quality of data that was available. It was this lack of standards that until now has stalled any effort to look at the global seismic risk in a homogenous way,” says Giardini.

Giardini recalls particular problems. “There were political boundary problems. For example in the Near East, the difficulty of having Syria, Israel and then Jordan and Egypt working together was very difficult,” says Giardini, who also remembers that India and China had never worked together, nor had Turkey, Iran and the former Soviet Union. He recalls the difficulty that grew from the international set of criteria that had to be used – which meant scientists from some countries, in order to comply with the new global standard, had to recalculate their seismological data. “It was very difficult originally, this is why the project lasted so long,” he says, adding that once a consensus was reached and once the scientists got used to working together, “things started to fly.”

Researchers were surprised to learn how high the hazard of earthquakes is throughout the African Rift.

Much as you would expect, the map – which specifically predicts the probability of peak ground acceleration, or an earthquake that most likely damages low-rise buildings – highlights some infamous ground-shaking hotspots, such as southern California, Hawaii and Turkey. But, since for some countries this was the first-ever seismological hazard assessment, the map highlights some new earthquake zones. In Africa, for example – for which there was little data – the hazard is much higher than researchers would have thought. And finding that data was a little harder than they might of thought as well.

In the eastern part of Africa, along the African Rift, much of the historic seismic activity had occurred in unpopulated and undeveloped places. Giardini explains that the hazards we are familiar with are a measure of our memory. Unlike in heavily populated cities, though, memory is short in these kinds of barren regions. In the end, researchers had to go as far away as England to find historic data on past earthquakes in the African Rift. Similarly, some researchers even looked in the Bible to find out the history of earthquakes in the Middle East.

With the new map, which was launched by the International Lithosphere Program with support from the United Nations’ International Decade for Natural Disasters, every country now has information on its own hazardous zones. According to Giardini, the map will be useful for engineers, urban planners and insurers to help regulate codes of design and construction. What the map does not measure, however, is risk from earthquakes.

Seismologists make a distinction between hazard, which is the probability of ground shaking, and risk, which is the probability of damage or of casualties – a multiplication of the hazard by the vulnerability of the building. So Giardini cautions that just because you may live in a high hazard region is no reason to start packing your bags – after all, he says, there are very few completely safe places to live. Instead, cities can limit the impact of an earthquake.

“Now a society can live with earthquakes as it can live with volcanoes, but it has to be prepared for that. So in itself, the hazard can be high, but not necessarily the risk. If you live in a well-built house and your infrastructure is up to standards, then you can live with earthquakes,” says Giardini, who adds, that the difficult part is getting the entire world to achieve this.

 

SCIENCE EDUCATION CONTENT STANDARDS (NRC)
(GRADES 5-8):
Identify appropriate questions for scientific investigations.
Use appropriate tools and techniques to gather, analyze, and interpret data.
Construct explanations and models using evidence.
Think critically and logically about the relationships between evidence
and explanations.
Recognize and analyze alternative explanations and procedures.
Communicate scientific procedure and explanations.
(GRADES 9-12):
Identify the questions and use concepts to guide scientific investigations.
Use technologies to improve investigations and communications.
Recognize and analyze alternative explanations and models.
STATE SCIENCE CURRICULUM FRAMEWORKS:
(GRADES 5-8)
1.1.11, 1.1.12, 1.1.13, 1.1.15, 2.1.6, 2.1.7, 2.1.8, 2.1.9, and 3.1.25 (GRADES 9-12):
1.1.20, 1.1.21, 1.1.24, 1.1.26, 2.1.11,2.1.14, 3.1.28, 3.1.33, 3.1.39, 3.1.44

MATERIALS
Per class:
16 oz. dishwashing liquid (Dawn or Regular Joy)
2 one-gallon bottles or buckets
1 measuring cup
1 gallon vinegar
glycerin (available at Wal-Mart or pharmacies)
overhead calculator
Per Group of 4:
1 roll paper towels
16 plastic drinking straws
2 rulers
12 four oz. clear plastic cups
1 roll masking tape
1 graduated cylinder or measuring cup
1 meter stick
1 eyedropper
4 sheets of white paper
1 calculator
Activities from Bubbleology. Gems
Bubbleology, Insights Visual Production,(for previewing only)
Module 1- Bubbleology
KEY QUESTIONS
1. What is a controlled experiment?
2. What is a hypothesis?
3. What are data?
4. What is the difference between a data table and a graph?
5. What is the difference between results and conclusions?
6. When writing a conclusion statement, how does it relate to the hypothesis?
7. How are scientific process skills organized to solve a problem?
8. How can bubble experiments demonstrate the relationships that exist among the various scientific disciplines?
MANAGEMENT SUGGESTIONS
° Activities should be done on flat surfaces.
° Tape trash bags to table tops or desks for the experiments with bubbles.
° Mix bubble solution at least 24 hours in advance.
° Avoid using scented dishwashing liquids. They do not work as well.
° Students should wash out the plastic straws each time they change solution. They should reuse their own straws.
° Plastic plates such as SOLO can be used to regulate bubble size for reliable results.
° Vinegar is added to tables or desktops to remove the soap bubbles.
° Each activity requires more than one regular class period.
° Teachers may choose to give all measurements in SI units. -
° Alter experiments to allow students to design their own.
° Activity 3, page 9, variation: Assign each group a glycerin solution and compare results.
SAFETY CAUTIONS
° Preventive actions are the best safety measures.
° Close teacher supervision of student activities will usually prevent accidents or improper use of materials.
° For elementary students, certain precautions should be taken.
° Goggles should be worn in order to keep the bubble liquid from getting in their eyes. The goggles should be sterilized between use as some forms of contagion might happen.
° The students should be cautioned not to inhale while blowing bubbles through the straw.
° Any student with a cut should be cautioned about getting the solution or vinegar in the cut.

PROCEDURES
Activity 1
“The Chemistry of Bigger Bubbles” – Bubbleology
Activity 2
“Predict-A-Pop” – Bubbleology
TEACHER NOTES:
Americans rarely use soap! Sounds like a headline for a sleazy tabloid, but it is true. Today we often call the detergents we use soap, but they are not
soap. What is the difference between a soap and a detergent? To answer that question, first examine their similarities.
Soaps and detergents are both organic compounds. This means they are carbon compounds. Both of them function by acting as connectors between water and oils.
oil – soap – water
or oil – detergent -water
Dirt and grime are usually combined with oils such as grease, body oils, cooking fats etc.
Water does not combine readily with oils. Water does readily combine with one end of a soap or detergent molecule however. The cleaning molecule
then makes the water connect to the oil and dirt.
dirt – oil – soap – water
or dirt – oil – detergent -water
Why not just use soap? Soap has two major disadvantages. It becomes a greasy scum in acid and it combines with components of hard water to become “bathtub ring”. The more advanced detergent molecule is less susceptible to these problems. Modern organic ch emistry gave us detergents from crude oil. Alkylbenzenesulfonate (ABS) detergents quickly replaced soaps in the marketplace. Instead of soap made from animal fat and lye, America had an inexpensive “better” cleanser from petroleum products. America also h ad ABS foam floating on its rivers and even suds in drinking water from the tap. America had discovered that ABS detergents were not as biodegradable as soap.
A newer detergent soon replaced ABS detergents. Linear alkylsulfonates (LAS) present the advantages of a modern detergent produced from
petrochemicals while degrading in the environment like soap. Bacteria cannot easily digest an ABS detergent, but they do like soap and LAS.
EXTENSIONS
The following questions relate to technology, science, and society. They are suitable classroom projects for research and presentation.
1. America once exported wood ash to Europe for the soap industry. What positive and negative effects accompanied this? Consider the effect on the economy, the environment, politics, and westward expansion.
2. It can be argued that technology comes with a “price” that must be considered. That “price may be to the environment, natural resources, health, culture, or even other aspects of the economy. Consider the following technological improvements, discuss t heir contributions and their price
Soap
Alkylbenzenesulfonate (ABS) detergents
Linear alkylsulfonates (LAS)
3. Detergents are particularly toxic in an aquarium.
Propose some hypotheses for these phenomena.
RESOURCES:
Film “Bubbleology” INSIGHTS Visual Productions, Inc.
374A North Highway 101
Encinitas, CA 92024 (619) 942-0528
Activity 1: THE CHEM~ISTRY of Bigger BUBBLES
Introduction~~
Why do some dishwashing liquids make bigger bubbles than others? Why does (cream form bubbles’s when it is whipped, while milk does not? An enormous variety of natural substances form bubbles. Sea foam is formed by the agitation of phosphates (like those in soaps) released by decomposing kelp. Egg whites form hundreds of tiny bubbles when beaten. In each case, the formation of bubbles depends on the chemical composition of the substance.
This activity introduces your students to some of the properties of bubble-making substances. The students observe how soap affects the surface tension of water and investigate the role of evaporation in bubble formation, as they test the ef fect of different amounts of glycerin on the size of bubbles.
What You Need
For preparation and cleanup:
. 8 oz. (240 ml) dishwashing liquid
water
. measuring cup or graduated cylinder
.1 one-gallon container for mixing bubble solution
. 1 roil of masking tape
. paper towels
. 2 cups vinegar
. 1 squeegie (optional)
For the class:
. several ounces of glycerin
. several eyedroppers
. several measuring cups
. several calculators (optional)
. chalkboard
. chalk

For each pair of students:
. 1 meter or yard stick
. 2 plastic drinking straws
1 one-pint container (such as a cottage cheese container) for holding bubble solution
/ 1 “Experimenting with Glycerin data sheet (master included, page 26)
. 1 graphing sheet (master included, page 26)
. 1 pencil
1 table, counter, desk, or board about 30″ *(75 cm) in diameter
For the demonstration:
. 1 tall, clear, drinking glass
. water
. water pitcher
1 eyedropper
dishwashing soap (just 1 drop)
Getting Ready
1. Make one copy of the “Experimenting with Glycerin” data sheet and of the graphing sheet for each pair of students.
2. Prepare a gallon of bubble solution without glycerin:
1 cup (240 ml) dishwashing liquid
1 gallon water (3.8 liters)
3. Clear one flat surface, about 30″ (75 cm) in diameter, for each pair of students.
4. Place the demonstration materials on a table or desk.
5. Label eight pint containers “A” through “H.” Fill all eight containers with one cup of bubble solution made with no glycerin. Leave container “A” without glycerin. Add 10 drops of glycerin to container “13,” 20 drops to container “C,” and so on through container “H,” which will have 70 drops of glycerin. Hold the eyedropper vertically in order to help reduce variation in size of drops.
6. Place these containers of bubble solution and all other materials on a centrally located table.
Observing Surface Tension
1. Ask your students what substances they can think of that form bubbles. Point out that some substances, such as water, do form bubbles, but these bubbles disappear almost as quickly as they are formed.
2. Perform the following demonstration to explain why pure water bubbles don’t last:

€ Gather the group areound the demonstration table. Have them squat down so their eye level is closer to the level of the table.
€ Fill a glass to the top with water. Keep adding water , drop by drop, until you think the glass will over flow. Then add a few more drops. If you are careful, you’ll be able to add water until the surface of the water is actually higher than the gl ass.
€ Ask students if they can see that the water behaves as if it were covered with a skin. Explain that this effect is called surface tension. Water molecules at the surface of water are more attracted to each other than to the air; it is as if fthey s tick together. This “stickiness” causes surface tension. Surface tension keeps water from spilling and discourages the formation of bubbles. When bubbles do form, they are short-lived
If you have an extra twenty minutes and access to enough eye droppers for each student , consider replacing this teacher dmonstration with a hands-on activity. Give each student an eyedroopper and a penny. Ask them to predict how many drops of water wi ll fit on the penny without spilling. Distribute dishes of water and have them find out.
After the students have a chance to observe the surface tension of the water on a penny, ask them to put drops of water on a penny again. Then have them “break” the surface tension of the water on the penny by adding a drop of soap solution.

° To demonstrate the effect of soap on surface tension, carefully add one drop of soap to the very full glass of water. This should “break” the surface tension of the water, causing it to overflow. Explain that soap decreases the surface tension of w ater to about one-third of what it usually is: just right for making bubbles.
Discussing the Problem of Evaporation
1. Point out that another problem with using water to blow bubbles is that water evaporates very rapidly. When the water evaporates, the bubble wall is broken. This problem is not limited to the use of pure water since most soap bubble solutions contain w ater.
2. Explain that scientists have devised a way to deal with the problem of evaporation: adding a substance to the bubble solution to keep water from evaporating. Substances that have water-holding properties are referred to as hygroscopic. Glycerin is a hygroscopic liquid that is typically added to bubble solutions. Glycerin forms a weak chemical bond with water that delays evaporation.
Planning the Experiment
1. Tell your students that their challenge is to determine what effect the amount of glycerin in a bubble solution has on the size of the bubbles formed.
2. Ask the students for their ideas on ways of designing the experiment so it is a fair comparison. Use the following questions to guide the group in determining the test procedure they’d like to use.
° What is the test variable? [Amount of glycerin.]
° What variables must be kept the same or “controlled”?
3. Present a plan for varying the amount of glycerin while keeping the amount of water anddishwashing liquid the same. Draw eight cups on the chalkboard. Tell the class that each test formul will start with one cup of bubble solution made without glycerin . Formula A will have 0 drops of glycerin added to it. Formula B will have 10 drop of glycerin added to it, and so on up to Formula H,
which will have 70 drops of glycerin added. On the chalkboard, record the letter of the formula and the number of glycerin drops in each “cup.”
4. Ask the students if they have any expectations about the experiment. How much glycerin do they think will make the biggest bubbles?
Experimenting
1. Assign pairs of students to test the formulas. Have them apply the same method for measuring bubble size used in Activity 2: Comparing Bubble Solutions, as explained on pages 12 and 13.
2. As students finish testing one formula, have them swap work stations and test other formulas. For best results, each formula should be tested by at least four different groups.
Graphing the Results
1. Ask your students to gather around the chalkboard. Record the students’ averages under the formula names written across the top of the board. Calculate the grand average for each formula.
2. Ask your students to graph the results of all experiments on a graphing sheet (master included). Does the graph show an optimum amount of glycerin for making the biggest bubbles?
Note: Sometimes student data has so much variation that it is difficult to identify an optimum amount of glycerin. If so, have your group identify a broader range for the desirable amount of glycerin. Ask them how they would improve the expe riment in order to pinpoint more exactly the optimum amount of glycerin.
3. You may want to ask your students if they were surprised by the results. Many students assume at fIrst that the more glycerin used, the bigger the bubbles will be. As this experiment demonstrates, that is not the case.
Going Further
1. Sugar is another hygroscopic substance. Challenge your students to repeat their experiments using sugar instead of glycerin. Compare the results of the two experiments. Which is better for making big bubbles, sugar or glycerin?
2. Give your students the open-ended challenge of developing their own ideal bubble solutions. Remind them to vary only one ingredient at a time as they experiment, and to keep a careful record of what they do.

Activity 2: PREDICT – A – POP
Introduction
Blow a soap bubble. Can you tell when it will
Pop? You and your students may have already discovered that color is one important clue. It’s interesting that color should be a key to predicting bubble survival, since we usually think of color asa mere surface decoration. but actually the color of a soap bubble are produced by a complex interaction between light and matter calledinterference.
This activity is a playful introduction to interference, an important phenomenon in the history of physics and in modern industry Your students will enjoy discovering how to count down the last few seconds of a bubble’s existence..
3…2…1…POP!!!
What You Need
For preparation and cleanup:
þ 8 oz. (240ML) dishwashing liquid
. water
þ 1 measuring cup or graduated cylinder
. 1 eyedropper
þ 1 one-gallon container for mizing bubble solution
2 several rolls of masking tape
/ glycerin (optional)
For each pair of students:
, 1 pint-sized container for holding bubble solution
þ 2 plastic drinking straws
2 6 8″ X 11″ sheets of white paper
2 1 flat, dark surface about 18″(45cm) in diameter
or
2 1 cafeteria tray and black construction paper to cover the tray

14
If your students have difficluty seeing the colors on top of the bubble, suggest that they position a piece of white paper so that it will reflect more light onto the top of the bubble
Getting Ready
1.Prepare one gallon of bubble solution:
1 cup (240 mL) dishwashing liquid
50-60 drops glycerin (optional)
1 gallon water (3.8liters)
2. Pour the bubble solution into the small containers. Place the containers in a central location along with straws, white paper, and masking tape.
3.Clear off a flat, dark surface (about 18″ [45 cm In diameter) for each pair of students.
4.Prepare one “white collar” by taping fOur sheets of white paper together so they form a cylinder 81/2″ high. The white collar reduces air currents and reflects light onto the bubble so its colors can be seen clearly.
Observing Colors
1. Gather the students around you. Blow a bubble dome as follows:
a.Pour about 1/3 cup of soap solution on the surface of the table or tray, and use your hand to wet an area about 18″ (45 cm) in diameter.
b.Place the white collar around the soapy
area.
c. Dip a straw into the soap solution.
d. With the straw just touching the surface of the table, gently blow through the straw to form a bubble dome.
e. Remove the straw.
2. Expain that the challenge for the day is to use color to recognize tha tmoment just before a bubble pops. Instruct each pair of students to start by makin a collar, blowing a bubble dome, and observing the changing colors on top of the bubble . Tell them tgo record the sequence of colors they see for four or five bubbles.
1.9
Reporting Results
Have the students leave their materials and form a circle in view of the chalkboard. As several of the teams report, record their findings on the board. The students will probably discover a repeating sequence something like this: green to blue to magenta to yellow to green… (sequence repeats more than once)… and finally white to white with black spots to black- POP!! (The spots are actually transparent but because the background is black, they appear black.) Explain that the colors on the surface of a bubble change as the bubble becomes thinner and thinner.
Not all students will see this pattern because air currents may interfere with the gradual thinning of the top of the bubble, interrupting the usual color sequence. Write the typical color sequence on the board and draw the decreasing bubble wall underneath it. (See diagram.) Explain that in cases where there are absolutely no air disturbances, such as a bell jar, this is the pattern scientists have reported seeing. Ask the students if they notice any aspects of the typical pattern in their data.
GREEN – BLUE-MAGENTA-YELLOW-GREEN…(SEQUENCE REPEATS)-WHITE-WHITE W/BLACK SPOTS-BLACK-POP
ð ð BUBBLE WALL 1/1,000,000 OF AN INCH
Predicting the Pop
Now challenge the students to apply what they
learned to invent a method for counting down, to the second, when their bubbles will pop. Here are strategies some students have used:
° timing how long a period elapses between the appearance of the first white color on the bubble and when it pops;
° noticing how far down the side of the bubble the transparent or “black” area extends before the bubble pops;
° noticing how long before the “pop” a bubble loses its reflective properties.
let your students discover their own approaches before mentioning strategies used by other students.
Explaining the Phenomenon
The following explanations are written for the teacher. After your students have some success in predicting when a bubble will pop, you may want to discuss these explanations with them. Use your judgment about how much to present to your students. Typical ly, the concept of interference is first presented in high school physics courses.
1. Where do the colors in a bubble come from?
The colors in a bubble come from the reflection of white light shining on the bubble. White light contains waves of all different colors. The length of a wave, from crest to crest, determines its color. When light bounces off a bubble, some of each wave i s reflected from the outer surface of the bubble wall, and some passes through to be reflected by the inner surface.
Interference refers to what happens when two waves pass through the same region of space at the same time. For example, when two rocks are thrown into a lake near each other, the two sets of circular waves interference with one another. In some places, wh ere the crest of one wave meets the crest of another, the motion of the water is increased. In other places the crest of one wave meets the trough of another and there is little or no movement. The same basic process holds true for other wave motion, incl uding sound waves and light waves.
When the thickness of the bubble wall is such that the two reflected parts of the wave of light leave the bubble in step, crest top crest (as illustrated by red light in the diagram), that color appears brighter (constructive interference). Some co lors of light will emerge crest to trough (as Illustratedby blue light in the diagram) and will cancel each other (desrtructive interference) : those colors will not be seen. As the wall gets thinner, the colors that interfere constructively and de structively will also change.
Cleanup
1. If dark table surfaces were used:
a. First use a squeegie or paper towels to remove excess bubble solution from thetable surface. Do not add water.

b. Then sprinkle vinegar on the area to cut the soap film. Wipe dry with paper towels.

c.Repeat once more if surface still retains soap film.
2. If trays with black construction paper were used:
a. Discard soggy black paper.
b. Pour the bubble solution remaining on the tray down the sink or into a spare container. (Note: black dye from the construction paper will have leached into the soap solution, causing it to appear dark in color.)
c. Rinse off the tray.
Going Further
I. Assign students to look up the name Thomas Young and the concept of interference. They will find out about: (1) the controversy surrounding wave and particle theories of light; and (2) modern applications of interference phenomena, such as anti~ reflection coatings on bi binoculars l~0 rs.
2. Have your students begin a collection of materials others~at exl~ibit the phenomenon of interference: abalone shells, peacock feathers, some sunglasses, etc.

Hypothesis / Questions: Black objects absorb more ( and  radiate less) -heat than a white objects.

Here is an example:

“A black car will heat up faster in the sun than a white car will. It will also lose its heat faster in the winter.”

Read on if you’d like some details on why this is so.

For this discussion, we don’t really care about the subatomic causes of heat or why black bodies are the best absorbers and emitters of Electro-Magnetic Radiation (EMR). We only care about three things:

1. Which parts of each car are sunlit.The majority of the direct sunlight will build up on the exposed surfaces of each car– the roof, the hood, the trunk. As a rough estimate, let’s say that 20% of the light hits the interior directly. So 80% of the light is hitting the painted outer surfaces of each car.

   Now, about half of the EMR given off by the Sun is in the Infrared (IR) range. This is light with a wavelength longer than red light and which can’t be seen by humans, but which still causes heating effects. Sunlight also includes a small portion of invisible Ultraviolet (UV) light, which has wavelengths shorter than visible light. Keep this in mind as we move on to…

2. What materials are in the sunlit portions of each car, and which of those materials are better at absorbing and emitting heat.Basically, there are only two types of material here: metals and non-metals. In any case, we’ve decided that most of the sunlight is falling on the body of the car, which is metal and paint.

   We know that sunlight includes IR and UV as well as visible light. Certain types of paint may reflect more or less IR and UV light than others. You may have heard of Light Reflectance Value (LRV), which is used to measure how much visible light a certain color reflects, but there’s also a Solar Reflectance Index (SRI) which measures how much solar heat (i.e., infrared light) a given material reflects.

   For this discussion, we’re only concerned with visible color, so we’ll assume that all materials in the two cars reflect UV and IR equally well. Note that this may not be the case in real life.

   So what’s reflecting the visible portion of sunlight? Metals are much better conductors, but being naturally shiny, they don’t absorb a lot of light. But– and this is important– it’s the paint on the car which is absorbing the heat, and the metal underneath which is conducting and emitting heat through the entire car. The sheen (shininess) of the paint will affect its LRV, but we’ll ignore that for the time being. Only the color matters.

3. Which of those materials has the most impact on the temperature inside the car.No contest. A car is mostly metal, and that metal surrounds all the interior areas. If the metal gets hot, the car gets hot.

If we look up the LRVs for the colors white and black, we find that white reflects 80% of visible sunlight, and black reflects only 5%. So we can conclude that, regardless of the color of the interior, the car with the darker paint job will have the higher temperature.

Of course, leaving any car out in the sun for many hours will make driving it later an unpleasant experience. My advice? Install air conditioning.

Additional information has been compiled from an article published in the New World Coins (17 February 1992 and March 2, 1992) entitled “The World coinage uses 24 chemical elements” of Jay and Marieli.

Aluminum

Component (Al), Atomikos Number. 13, 660° C 13, density 2.70 kg / liter, MA Rt 660 ° C

This first metal was prepared by Oersted and Wohler in 1824.

A lot of metal in white corrosion-resistant is used in cheap currencies in several countries, particularly in Europe, where inflation had reduced the value of money. Recent examples include a short peseta coin issued in Spain and 5 and 10 lire in Italy.

The pure metal is very soft and not well maintained. However, it is a very important alloy addition (see Bronze aluminum).

The aluminum alloy of copper, sometimes containing a small amount of manganese and nickel are yellow and hard. A contemporary example of its use are in the currencies of five, 10 and 20 centime France.

Nordic Gold

A variety called Nordic Gold is clearly used in some Scandinavian currencies and also the new 10, 20 and 50 eurocent because it contains nickel. Has a composition of 89% cu, 5% al, 5% zn and 1% sn.

Antimony

Element (sb), individual number. 51, density 6.62 kg / liter M. Rt. 631° C is known since antiquity.

A silver metal, which is very delicate and easily broken and crushed, and this is unlikely as a candidate for use in coins. It efkolochyto melts at 631 ° c and gives a clear picture of the mold. The main use is to supplement your alloy used to harden lead.

The only example I know the use of antimony is a currency hit 10 c; Slice in China in 1931.

An essay in this metal, a pen in 1860, has recently put on sale by Spinks in London.

Used alloy with tin, copper or lead to the production of white metal used in the manufacture of medals.

Barton Metal Barton

Metal Barton is actually lapped copper with a thick layer of gold was used in 1825 during the reign of George the 4 ^th, a draft five pound coins and two pounds, the Royal Mint.

Bath Metal

A type of cheap bronze used in the manufacture of some Irish and American and coupons for some Coins of Isle of Man.

Bell Metal

A type of brass is normally used in the manufacture of bells, but also used in France since the revolution.

Billon

Silver alloy with 50% v copper alloy or gold cheap metal

An alloy of copper and silver, with more than half the copper. Large quantities of billon coins were produced in the Roman era, many with a solution of silver. Αυτό το κράμα χρησιμοποιήθηκε επίσης από τους Γάλλους τον 18 ^ο αιώνα. This mixture was also used by the French in ^{the 18th} century.

Crown Gold

2 carat gold alloy and 22 carat gold, so called golden crown of 1526, which used this alloy. Earlier gold coins made of nearly pure gold. The Gold Crown is the standard material used in the British gold sovereign, which even cut. Το μέταλλο του κράματος είναι συνήθως χαλκός, αν και έχει χρησιμοποιηθεί και ασήμι. The metal alloy is usually copper, although silver has been used.

Cupro-Nickel

Evidently an alloy of copper and nickel is one of the more common alloys used in modern currency. Said nickel and bronze by some in the U.S.  An alloy called congenital lpaca A also contains zinc.

It asimizon in appearance and well maintained, and still is easy to construct. United Kingdom, first used in 1947, where a mixture of 75% cu and 25% N i used for more ‘silver’ coins. In this composition the currency and shows no trace of color from the main ingredient.

Other copper-nickel alloys are used. The first US cents from 1857 to 1864 containing 87,5% cu and 12.5% N i, and so they have a bright yellow color, while the current 20 p UK currency is made of an alloy of 84% cu and 16% ni. Some modern currencies chalkonikeliou Russia also contain zinc. The Franklin Mint in the U.S. has developed an alloy chalkonikeliou, who called Franklinium.

Electrum

This of course comes from approximately 75% gold 25% silver and copper and other metals used in the first coins struck in Lydia, around 700 BC. The name amber is also used as an artificial mixture was used for currencies Merovingkianis Dynasty of the Kingdom of the Franks around 600 – 700 AD.

Question that currencies were private mints in the U.S. natural gold, the gold rush era in California, made from amber.

Gold

Element (Au), individual number 79,  density 19.32 kg / liter M.Rt. 1063° C Gold is the most famous metal since ancient times, which is like a natural metal.

Perhaps the most perfect metal for coins, as it is supple and chemically inert to the extent that gold coins were discovered after long periods in soil still retain its glossy surface. Being a soft metal, nowadays almost always used mixed with copper to make it more durable, although gold-silver alloys used, particularly in Australia in the manufacture of gold and imichryson pounds during the period 1855-1870.

The first English coins were made of pure gold, but a number of other alloys are used, examples include the gold crown and amber.

Gun Metal

A mixture of 88% copper, 10% tin, and 2% zinc used to build cannons. It was used regularly for currencies, though the famous Gun Money produced in 1689 by James II for use in Ireland. Spilled from scrap metal, old guns, bells, etc. It is unusual to indicate the month, and year of issue.

Hafnium

Element (Hf), individual number 72, , density 13.09 kg / liter M.Rt. 2222 ° C

Recently, first discovered in 1923 by Coster and Hevesy.

The Fred has hit a few pieces of this metal, which has few uses outside the nuclear industry, where high concentration of neutron cross-Section makes it useful in some control rods of nuclear reactors.

The hafnium are chemically very similar to the zirconium, both of which are found in nature. Indeed zirconia minerals always contain hafnium in a proportion between 0.7% and 50%.

As mentioned above, the hafnium absorbs neutrons very rapidly, such as zirconium. The need to separate the hafnium in the zirconium for nuclear applications is one reason for the high cost of the final material.

Iron

Element (Fe), individual number 26, density 7.87 kg / liter M.Rt. 1537° C

First discovered in the prehistoric period, for many years the iron is not used as currency, as it was heavy, fragile in the most commonplace molded shape and prone to rust.

The cast iron contains between 3% and 4,2% C, melting between 1150 ° C, depending on the carbon content. Iron alloys containing low levels normally called carbon steel.

Iron coins were issued by Finland in 1943 and 1953, and also in Bulgaria in 1943.

To check the erosion problem in modern currencies, various coatings have been used by copper (modern UK ‘copper’) and bronze (German fen inch 5 and 10), nickel and chromium (the post-war Canadian 5 cents), only nickel (the one and five Finish brand from 1953 to 1962) or zinc (the 1943 US cents). Some of them are actually steel rather than iron core.

Lead

Component (Pb), individual number 82, density 11.36 kg / liter M.Rt. 327 ° C

Lead is a very soft blue-gray metal, and that the first coins of lead have not survived very well. It has been used, particularly in southern India, at the time of Christ in China and Burma and Siam in ^the 19th century. Because cast well and has a silver appearance when new, is often used in counterfeiting, especially when coated to replicate the gold coins.

In Roman times lead was used for identity cards, which were tickets or vouchers (also made of bronze) and distributed by the emperor (among others) making the beneficiary owner of food or money.

In its normal state quickly dazzles in a deep gray color and very poor wear resistance.

Magnesium

Element (Mg), Personal No. 12, density 1.74 kg / liter M.Rt. 650° C

First-detected by Black in 1755

Magnesium is a silver-white malleable metal 40% lighter than aluminum. It is an important alloy addition in many metallurgical applications, but is largely used for a swap.

It has been used in some limited edit. The Jay and Marieli in their article a report of 10 pfennig coin made in the Lads Ghetto.

Manganese

Element manganese (Mn), atomic No 25, density 7,43 kg / litre, M. Pt 1245 ° C

First isolated by Gahn in 1774.

A gray metal that looks like polished steel. It is used as a pure metal in the coins and medals because it reacts with water, but often found in the alloys. 5 c the U.S. made from an alloy of 56% Cu 35% Ag 9% Mn from 1942 to 1945 because nickel is an essential material in the war. This alloy was chosen to match the electrical properties of the alloy cupronickel, so it can be used in phones and other vending machines.

The Dow Chemical Company has built several pieces in 1933, a metal named Dow metal, an alloy containing 95% Mg.

Manganese Bronze

Technically a brass, containing an additional amount of manganese. It is a copper alloy containing zinc, manganese and a small amount of nickel used for the new U.S. dollar. The composition used for the dollar e1 s so cu 88,5%, ZN 6%, MN 3.5% Ni and 2% overall, with an investment of cu 77%, the ZN 12%, 7% of MN and Ni 4%. This combination was chosen to match the electrical properties with those of previous U.S. dollars to avoid costly changes in vending machines.

Molybdenum

Molybdenum (Mo), personal No 42, density of 10,22 kg / litre, M. Pt 2610 ° C

First isolated in 1781 by Hjelm.

A silvery-white element that is commonly used as an addition to mixing steel and titanium alloys, although there are applications where a pure metal is used. Fred It has been used for currencies in circulation, although a small number of standards has been made in this metal by Fred Zinkann.

Nickel

Element Nickel (Ni), atomic No 28, density 8.90 kg / litre, M. Pt 1453 ° C

First isolated in 1751 from Cronstedt, an event won by Canada in 1951 with a special piece of 5 c. However, the element is present in the form of alloys in early Bactrian coins dating back to around 200 BC.

Typically used in an alloy with copper or iron, although the pure metal is used a lot, especially for the currencies of Switzerland and Canada. Initially used in this form in Switzerland in 1881. The pure metal is magnetic, and is noticeably more yellow than some of the silvery metal such as chromium and aluminum.

There is some concern that several people are allergic to nickel, nevertheless the element used in alloys of the new coins.

Nickel Brass

Copper Alloy containing zinc and a small amount of nickel, used for example in British currency three penny and pound. The composition used for three penny is cu 79%, ZN 20% Ni and 1%, while that for the pound is cu 70%, ZN 24,5% Ni and 5.5%. The outer ring of bimetallic coin is two pound cu 76%, ZN 20% Ni and 4%.

Nickel Silver

Copper alloy containing nickel by 18-22%, zinc by 15-20% and sometimes manganese and other metals that produce a wide variety of configurations. The alloy is sometimes known as German silver or Argentan.

Niobium

Element niobium (Nb), atomic No 41, density 8,57 kg / litre, M. Pt 2468 ° C

First isolated in 1801 by Hatchett.

An expensive gray metal used mainly for applications yperagogikes form alloys. Occasionally medals have been using this metal. This item was called columbium (Cb symbol) in the U.S.

Orichalchum

Word used by the Romans to show their bronze, containing 80% copper and zinc by 20% approximately. Dupondius The distinguished by the presence orichalchum than copper, as well as sestertius.

Palladium

Palladium (Pd), atomic No. 46, density of 12,02 kg / litre, M. Pt 1552 ° C

First isolated in 1803 by Wollaston.

A scant number of ductile metal platinum which has the same economic significance of platinum at that moment. Some coins are made from this metal, the first being at a coin was the 1967 ½ Hau of Tonga who was actually an alloy containing 2% ruthenium.

Pewter

Initially, an alloy of tin with lead about 15%, and sometimes antimony and copper. Modern are usually lead-free.

Coins include pewter is 1 kreuzer in 1757 in Bohemia and one French franc piece 5 of 1831.

Pinchbeck

Cheap brass, containing mainly copper with some zinc, invented in the 18th century as a cheap imitation of gold. Used more for medals than coins and now known as gilding metal.

Platinum

Platinum (Pt), atomic No. 78, density of 21.45 kg / litre, M. Pt 1769 ° C

First isolated in 1735 by de Ulloa. Discovered in quantity in Russia in 1822 and was used in this country during the period 1828-1835 for coins. Platinum is the most common platinum-group metals and ductile, making it relatively easy to produce coins. However, supplies are relatively limited, and the metal has a very important use as a catalyst in chemical reactions.

One of the most recent uses of the platinum medals in France during the Napoleonic period around 1800.

Potin

It is an ancient copper, zinc, lead and tin that is found on coins of ancient Gaul. Unlike billon, contains no silver, although some alloys containing silver have also been asked potin, as some of Egypt in the 1st-3rd century AD

Apparently this alloy was also used in 1st century coins from southern India.

Rhenium

Rhenium (Re), No. 75 atomic density of 21.04 kg / litre, M. Pt 3180 ° C

First isolated in 1925 from Noddack, Tack and Berg.

Zinkann has struck a coin in this very scarce white metal.

The romance and lure of the gold is enhanced by its historic use as a store of wealth. The value of gold is intrinsic. The value of ending a measure of true wealth and stability of national currencies of the world is still measured by the deposit of the gold a country possess. Throughout its history, every paper currency has become totally worthless over the years yet gold remains.

These days gold coins are no more used as the medium of exchange. Gold coins are in the market to purchase as the store of value to keep your wealth safe.

You can buy gold eagle coins for the safe storage of your wealth. With the Gold Bureau you can buy gold, silver and other valuable metals and coins to keep the value of your asset in safe condition.

Objective
To learn about static electricity.

Materials
Two balloons, Tape, Two four-foot strings, and a Piece of dry wool cloth.

Procedure
Inflate the two large balloons and tie them to the ends of the strings. Hang these two balloons from the ceiling with a piece of tape. Adjust the length of the strings so that the balloons are barely touching each other. With the piece of wool cloth, rub each balloon for several seconds. What will happen when you let the balloons hang together freely? Will they pull together or farther apart?

Conclusion
The balloons are pushed away from each other as if there is a force there that can not be seen. This happens because each balloon has an electrical charge of static electricity. Because the charge of the electricity is the same on the surface of both the balloons, the balloons are repelled, or forced apart. Because the balloons are not very heavy, little charge is needed to separate them.

Objective
To learn about the characteristics of water.

Materials
Clear glass, and paper clips.

Procedure
Fill the glass with water until it is completely full. At this point you can predict, or guess, how many paper clips you will be able to put into the glass until the water over flows. Start placing the paper clips into the glass, but make sure you count them as you put them in. How many were you able to place in the glass before the water overflowed? How close was your guess?

Conclusion
If you guess a number from ten to twenty, you were far from the correct number. Once you tried it however, you realized that the cup of water could in fact hold hundreds of paper clips before it over flowed! This is because the water forms a thin skin around the water. Look at the glass of water from the side. You can see that the water is actually over the top of the glass. The layer of skin keeps the water from over flowing.

Alchemists (about 1000-1650)
Attempted to (1) change lead and other base metals to gold; (2) discover a universal solvent; and (3) discover a life-prolonging elixir. Used plant products and arsenic compounds to treat diseases.

Boyle, Sir Robert (1637-1691)
Formulated fundamental gas laws. First to conceive the possibility of small particles combining to form molecules; distinguished between compounds and mixtures; studied air and water pressures, desalination, crystals and electrical phenomena.

Priestley, Joseph (1733-1804)
Discovered oxygen, carbon monoxide and nitrous oxide.

Scheele, C.W. (1742-1786)
Discovered chlorine, tartaric acid, sensitivity of silver compounds to light (photochemistry); and oxidation of metals.

Le Blanc, Nicholas (1742-1806)
Invented a process for making soda ash from sodium sulfate, limestone and coal.

Lavoisier, A.L. (1743-1794)
Discovered nitrogen; studied acids and described composition of many organic compounds. Generally regarded as the father of chemistry.

Volta, A. (1745-1827)
Invented the electric battery, a series of “piles” or stacks of alternating layers of silver and zinc, or copper and zinc, separated by paper soaked in brine (electrolyte).

Berthollet, C.L. (1748-1822)
Corrected Lavoiser’s theory of acids; discovered bleaching power of chlorine; studied combining weights of atoms (stoichiometry).

Jenner, Edward (1749-1823)
Discoverer of vaccination for prevention of smallpox (1776).

Dalton, John (1766-1844)
The first great chemical theorist; proposed atomic theory (1807);stated law of partial pressure of gases. His ideas led to laws of multiple proportions, constant composition and conservation of mass.

Avogadro, A. (1776-1856)
Proposed principle that equal volumes of gases contain the same number of molecules. The number (6.02 x 1023 for 22.41 litres of any gas) is a fundamental constant that applies to all chemical units.

Davy, Sir Humphry (1778-1829)
Laid foundation of electrochemistry, studied electroysis of salts in water and other electrochemical phenomena; isolated Na and K.

Gay-Lussac, J.L. (1778-1850)
Discovered boron and iodine, studied acids and bases and discovered indicators (litmus); improved production method for H2SO4, did basic research on behavior of gases versus temp and on the ratios of gas volumes in chemical reactions.

Berzelius, J.J. (1779-1850)
Classified minerals chemically; discovered and isolated many elements (Se, Th, Si, Ti, Zr); coined the terms isomer and catalyst; noted existence of radicals; anticipated discovery of colloids.

Faraday, Michael (1791-1867)
Extended Davy’s work in electrochemistry. He developed theories of electrical and mechanical energy, electrolysis, corrosion, batteries, and electrometallurgy.

Wohler, F. (1800-1882)
First to synthesize an organic compound (urea, 1828) (a rearrangement reaction). This discovery was the beginning of synthetic organic chemistry.

Goodyear, Charles (1800-1860)
Discovered vulcanization of rubber (1844) by sulphur, inorganic accelerator, and heat. Hancock in England made a parallel discovery.

Liebig, J. von (1803-1873)
Fundamental investigation of plant life (photosynthesis) and soil chemistry; first to propose use of fertilisers. Discovered chloroform and cyanogen compounds.

Graham, Thomas (1822-1869)
Studied diffusion of solutions through membranes; established principles of colloid chemistry.

Pasteur, Louis (1822 – 1895)
(1) First to recognize infective bacteria as disease-causing agents; (2) developed concept of immunochemistry; (3) initiated heat-sterilization of wine and milk (pasteurization); (4) observed optical isomers (enantiomers) in tartaric acid.

Lister, Joseph (1827-1912)
Initiated use of antiseptics in surgery, e.g., phenols, carbolic acid, cresols.

Kekulé, A. (1829-1896)
Laid foundations of aromatic chemistry; conceived of four-valent carbon and structure of benzene ring; predicted isomeric substitutions (ortho-, meta-, para-).

Nobel, Alfred (1833-1896)
Invented dynamite, smokeless powder, blasting gelatin. Established international awards for achievements in chemistry, physics and medicine.

Mendeléev, D.I. (1834-1907)
Discovered periodicity of the elements and compiled the first Periodic Table.

Hyatt, J.W. (1837-1920)
Initiated plastics industry (1869) by invention of Celluloid (nitrocellulose modified with camphor).

Perkin, Sir W.H. (1838-1907)
Synthesized first organic dye (mauveine, 1856) and first synthetic perfume (coumarin). His work on dyes was continued and expanded by Hofmann in Germany.

Beilstein, F.K. (1838-1906)
Compiled Handbuchder organischen Chemie, a multi-volume compendium of properties and reactions of organic chemicals.

Gibbs, Josiah W. (1839-1903)
Stated three principal laws of thermodynamics; expounded nature of entropy and phase rule and the relation between chemical, electric and thermal energy.

Chardonnet, H. (1839-1924)
First to produce a synthetic fibre (nitrocellulose) with properties similar to rayon.

Boltzmann, L. (1844-1906)
Developed kinetic theory of gases, their viscosity and diffusion properties are summarized in Boltzmann’s Law.

Roentgen, W.K. (1845-1923)
Discovered x-radiation (1895). Awarded Nobel Prize in 1901.

Le Chatelier, H.L. (1850-1936)
Fundamental research on equilibrium reactions (Le Chatelier’s Law),
combustion of gases, and metallurgy of iron and steel.

Becquerel, H. (1851-1908)
Discovered radioactivity, deflection of electrons by magnetic fields and gamma radiation. Nobel Prize 1903 (with the Curies).

Moisson, H. (1852- 907)
Developed electric furnace for making carbides and preparing pure
metals; isolated fluorine (1886). Nobel Prize 1906.

Fischer, Emil (1852-1919)
Basic research on sugars, purines, uric acid, enzymes, nitric acid, ammonia. Pioneer work in sterochemistry. Nobel Prize 1902.

Thomson, Sir J.J. (1856-1940)
Research on cathode rays resulted in proof of existence of electrons
(1896). Nobel Prize 1906.

Arrhenius, Svante (1859 – 1927)
Fundamental research on rates of reaction versus temperature, expressed by the Arrhenius equation; and on electrolytic dissociation. Nobel Prize 1903.

Hall, Charles Martin (1863-1914)
Invented method of aluminium manufacture by electrochemical reduction of alumina. Parallel discovery by Heroult in France.

Baekeland, Leo H. (1863-1944)
Invented phenolformaldehyde plastic (1907), the first completely synthetic resin (Bakelite).

Nernst, Walther Hermann (1864-1941)
Awarded Nobel Prize in 1920 for his work in thermochemistry, did basic research in electrochemistry and thermodynamics.

Werner, A. (1866-1919)
Introduced concept of coordination theory of valence (complex chemistry). Nobel Prize in 1913.

Curie, Marie (1867-1934)
Discovered and isolated radium; research on radioactivity of uranium. Nobel Prize 1903 (with Becquerel) in physics; in chemistry 1911.

Haber, F. (1868-1924)
Synthesized ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen, the first industrial
fixation of atmospheric nitrogen (the process was further developed by Bosch). Nobel Prize 1918.

Rutherford, Sir Ernest (1871-1937)
First to prove radioactive decay of heavy elements and to carry out a
transmutation reaction (1919). Discovered half-life of radioactive elements. Nobel Prize 1908.

Lewis, Gilbert N. (1875-1946)
Proposed electron-pair theory of acids and bases; authority on thermodynamics.

Aston, F.W. (1877-1945)
Pioneer work on isotopes and their separation by mass spectrograph.
Nobel Prize 1922.

Fischer, Hans (1881-1945)
Basic research on porphyrins, chlorophyll, carotene, synthesized hemin. Nobel Prize 1930.

Langmuir, Irving (1881-1957)
Fundamental research on surface chemistry, monomolecular films, emulsion chemistry. Also electric discharges in gases, cloud seeding, etc. Nobel Prize 1932.

Staudinger, Hermann (1881-1965)
Fundamental research on high-polymer structure, catalytic synthesis, polymerization mechanisms, resulting eventually in development of stereospecific catalysts by Ziegler and Natta (stereoregular polymers). Nobel Prize 1963.

Flemming, Sir Alexander (1881-1955)
Discovered penicillin (1928); initiated antibiotics. Nobel Prize 1945. The science was developed in the U.S. by Selman A. Waksman.

Moseley, Henry G.J. (1887-1915)
discovered the relation between frequency of x-rays emitted by an element and its atomic number, thus indicating the element’s true position in the Periodic Table.

Adams, Roger (1889-1971)
Noted educator and contributor to industrial research in catalysis and structural analysis. Priestley Medal.

Midgley, Thomas (1889-1944)
Discovered tetraethyllead and antiknock treatment for gasoline (1921) and fluorocarbon refrigerants early research on synthetic rubber.

Ipatieff, Vladimir N. (1890-1952)
Basic research and development of catalytic alkylation and isomerisation of hydrocarbons (with Herman Pines).

Banting, Sir Frederick (1891-1941)
Isolated the insulin molecule. Nobel Prize 1923.

Chadwick, Sir James (1891-1974)
Discovered the neutron (1932) Nobel Prize 1935.

Urey, Harold C. (1894-1981)
Discovered heavy isotope of hydrogen (deuterium). Nobel Prize 1934. A leader of he Manhattan Project. Made original contributions to theories of the origin of the universe and of life processes.

Carothers, Wallace (1896-1937)
Polymerization research resulting in synthesis of neoprene (polychloroprene) and of nylon (polyamide).

Kistiakowsky, George B. (1900-1982)
Developed the detonating device used in first atomic bomb.

Heisenberg, W.K. (1901-1976)
Research in quantum mechanics resulting in development of the orbital theory of chemical bonding. Stated Uncertainity Principle. Nobel Prize 1932.

Fermi, Enrico (1901-1954)
First to achieve a controlled nuclear fission reaction (1939); basic research on subatomic particles. Nobel Prize 1938.

Lawrence, Ernest O. (1901-1958)
Invented the cyclotron in which first synthetic elements were created. Nobel Prize 1939.

Libby, Wilard F. (1908-1980)
Developed radiocarbn dating technique based on carbon-14. Nobel Prize 1960.

Crick, F.H.C (1916- ) with Watson, James D.
Elucidated structure of DNA molecule (1953) resulting in development of gene-splicing (recombinant DNA) techniques.

Woodward, Robert W. (1917-1979)
Nobel Prize 1965 for his brilliant syntheses of such compounds as cholesterol, quinine, chlorophyll and cobalamin.

Course Structure
Each course was taught entirely via computer with no face-to-face meetings. The courses were structured around weekly readings, at-home activities, weekly required e-mail, and on-going question/response/feedback with the other students. Each student was assigned a reading partner with whom summaries were exchanged. The basic structure of each course was based on the format used by Professor Edwin F. Taylor of Boston University, instructor of the Special Relativity course. (For Taylor’s perspective, see “Teaching Physics On Line” by Richard C. Smith and Taylor.) Learning activities included problem sets and lab activities using a kit of materials or computer software mailed to the student.

Quality of Learning
In Byrum’s experience, “the quality of learning in any environment depends on the time and effort that each student is willing to commit to the course.” Interaction is also important for learning, and Byrum noticed a high quality and quantity of interaction among students and instructors: “In these courses, I believe that there is more interaction between the students and with the instructor than would normally occur in a face-to-face course and an overall higher quality to the discussions that occur.” Byrum’s advises new distance students, “Be prepared to interact. You can’t hang back the way you might in a lecture-based class.”

Technology
Obviously, everyone had a computer and Internet connection, and the brand (IBM or Mac) did not seem to matter. The quality of the telecommunications software dramatically improved over time. In the first two courses, students used ZTERM and the host site used CONFER as the organizing/management software. According to Byrum, communication was difficult with CONFER: “Editing was a challenge, pasting from word processing documents was not fully supported, and some keyboard characters were not allowed. It was difficult to communicate and to participate in the courses, but it was still doable.”
The last course used a software package called First Class to organize and manage the communications between participants. First Class supports folders and easy access between topics. “It was extremely easy to use and greatly facilitated communications among students and between student and instructor,” remarked Byrum.
Overall, the technology in courses ran smoothly. Byrum noted, “The only real glitches were the few occasions when assignments were due on a Sunday and either the host computer was not up or the local Internet connections were not doing well. In all cases the instructors were very understanding and willing to be flexible.”

Final Thoughts
Will Byrum continue to take online courses? You bet! In his own words, “they are a great benefit to working students as well as students who live in an area where the local colleges/universities do not offer similar courses.” Byrum, who has helped design and teach many university-level education and chemistry courses, would even consider teaching an online chemistry course. Don’t be surprised if we profile his teaching experience some day.

Chemistry is a course that explores the properties of substances and the changes that substances undergo. The student will investigate the following:

· Atomic Structure · · Matter and Energy · · Interactions of Matter · · Properties of Solutions ” including Acids and Bases·

Students should explore chemistry through inquiry, hands-on laboratory investigations, individual studies and group activities. The students, experiences in chemistry should enable them to understand the role of chemistry in their lives by investigating substances that occur in nature, in living organisms and those that are created by humans. Their study should include both qualitative and quantitative descriptions of matter and the changes that matter undergoes. Students should practice the necessary precautions for performing safe inquiries and activities and appreciate the risks and benefits of producing and using chemical substances.

 

Atomic Structure
Standard Number: 1.0 Atomic Structure

Standard: The student will investigate atomic structure and its implications for physical and chemical properties.

Learning Expectations:

The student will:

1.1 compare and contrast various models of the atom as they have emerged historically, from the Greeks to the modern electron-cloud model.

1.2 investigate the basic organization of the modern periodic table, including atomic number and atomic properties.

1.3 describe models of the atom in terms of orbitals, electron configuration, orbital notation, quantum numbers and electron-dot structures.

1.4 investigate the composition of the nucleus so as to explain isotopes and nuclear reactions.

1.5 relate the spectral lines of an atom,s emission spectrum to the transition of electrons between different energy levels within an atom.

 

Performance Indicators State:

As documented through state assessment,

Level 1, the student is able to

· categorize an element as a metal, metalloid, nonmetal or noble gas based on its position in the periodic table. · · identify an element,s atomic number and name or symbol, given the number of protons or electrons in a neutral atom using a periodic table. · · identify protons, neutrons and electrons with regard to their relative mass, relative charge and/or location in an atom.·

Level 2, the student is able to

· identify the major characteristics of various models of the atom: Democritus, Thomson, Rutherford, Bohr, and the modern quantum mechanical model. · · determine the number of protons, neutrons and/or electrons in an atom or ion, given the symbol of the atom or ion and a periodic table. · · compare s and p orbitals in an energy level in terms of general shape, energy and/or numbers of electrons possible. · · determine the Lewis electron-dot structure or number of valence electrons for an atom of any main group element (1, 2, 13-18), given its atomic number or its position in the periodic table. ·

Level 3, the student is able to

· describe the trends present in the periodic table with respect to atomic size, ionization energy, electron affinity or electronegativity.·

 

Performance Indicators Teacher:

As documented through teacher observation,

Level 1, the student is able to L

· identify an isotope when given the number of protons and neutrons. · · draw Bohr models for the first 18 elements.·

Level 2, the student is able to

· write the arrangement of electrons in the following three ways: ·

· orbital notation · · electron configuration notation · · electron-dot notation·

· predict the charge of an ion usually formed by the main-group elements (1, 2, 13-18) using the periodic table. · · organize atoms from the main- group elements (1, 2, 13-18) based on atomic radii. · · support the existence of the atom using the Laws of Definite Composition, Conservation of Matter and Multiple Proportion · · calculate the average atomic mass of an element from the percent distribution and masses of isotopes. · · identify and/or explain the formation of anions and cations. · · use the Bohr model to draw an electron moving from its ground state to an excited state, and/or represent the emission of energy as it returns from an excited state to a lower energy state. · · recognize names of famous scientists and identify their major contributions: Neils Bohr, James Chadwick, John Dalton, Max Planck, Ernest Rutherford, J.J. Thomson. · · describe the differences between the Bohr model of the atom and the quantum mechanical (QM) electron-cloud model of the atom. · · calculate wavelength, frequency or energy of a photon of electromagnetic radiation, given the formula and constants. · · research careers that relate to atomic structure, such as astronomy, nuclear medical technician, research physicist, chemist, etc.·

Level 3, the student is able to

· compare s, p, d, f orbitals in an energy level in terms of general shape, energy or number of electrons possible. · · determine quantum numbers for elements given the electron configuration. · · explain in a paragraph why some elements do not have the predicted electron configuration; for example, copper tends to have an electron configuration of [ Ar] 4s13d10 instead of [ Ar] 4s23d9 · · justify the quark combinations that make protons and neutrons, given the charges of the up and down quarks. · · write the nuclear equation involving alpha or beta particles, given the mass number of the parent isotope and complete symbols for alpha or beta emissions.·

Sample Task:

Flame Test Demonstration

glass petri dishes or watch glasses

chloride compounds (CuCl2, SrCl2, CaCl2, LiCl, etc.)

methanol (methyl alcohol)

Place .5 g of each salt in separate watch glasses or petri dishes; add 20 mL of methanol. Stir to distribute the salt in the methanol. Light and observe the characteristic color of each metal,s spectrum. The students may also look at the flame through a spectroscope or diffraction grating.

Integration/Linkages:

physics, mathematics, graphing, radioactivity, nuclear medicine, nuclear physics, imagination, problem-solving skills, history, calculator and computer skills, laboratory skills, scale and model, careers, culture, visual arts, writing, and research

 

Matter and Energy
Standard Number: 2.0 Matter and Energy

Standard: The student will investigate the characteristics of matter and the interaction of matter and energy.

Learning Expectations:

2.1 The student will investigate the characteristics of matter.

2.2 The student will explore the interactions of matter and energy.

 

Performance Indicators State:

As documented through state assessment,

Level 1, the student is able to

· identify a pure substance as element or compound, when given its chemical name or formula. · · distinguish among elements, compounds, solutions, colloids, suspensions, given examples. · · classify changes in matter as physical or chemical, given examples or scenarios. · · classify properties of matter as physical or chemical when given examples or scenarios. · · distinguish between heat content and temperature when given either a unit, a definition and/or an example.·

Level 2, the student is able to

· distinguish among gases, liquids and solids in terms of particle spacing and relative movement, given a diagram or scenario. · · predict the effect of changing one gas variable (volume, temperature, pressure) on one of the others, given a scenario. · · demonstrate an understanding of the law of conservation of matter, given experimental data. · · categorize a process as endothermic or exothermic, given an example or scenario.·

Level 3, the student is able to

· demonstrate an understanding of the law of conservation of energy by equating heat loss and heat gain in an interaction, given the formulas -q = q and q = mcD t, and the specific heat.·

 

Performance Indicators Teacher:

As documented through teacher observation,

Level 1, the student is able to

· estimate equivalent Fahrenheit and Celsius temperatures and convert between Celsius and Kelvin temperature scales. · · measure the mass and volume of solids and liquids using appropriate equipment, methods and units. · · determine the density of solids and liquids. · · read a thermometer and express the temperature accurately.·

Level 2, the student is able to

· distinguish between accuracy and precision. · · create data tables and graphs from experimental data. · · analyze data by computing a percentage error. · · record measurements and results of calculations using the correct number of significant figures. · · characterize a relationship between two variables as directly or inversely proportional. · · use conversion factors, dimensional analysis and/or ratio and proportion to convert between quantities. · · express large and small numbers using scientific notation and perform calculations in scientific notation. · · practice appropriate safety procedures when working in the laboratory. · · research careers that relate to matter and energy such as, surveyor, carpenter, structural engineer, HVAC technician, pathologist, etc.·

Level 3 , the student is able to

· using a calorimeter, identify an unknown metal by determining its specific heat.·

Sample Task:

Bell, Jerry. “Mystery Powders: An Inquiry Activity.” Chemistry in the National
Science Education Standards. Chapter 5.

Students are given samples of seven white powders, each of which is a common household substance, and five test reagents. They are to develop a procedure to distinguish among the powders based on their physical and chemical properties, and to identify each powder when given a chart of expected results. The seven white solids are baking powder, baking soda, sugar, flour, sugar substitute, washing soda, and calcium supplement. The test reagents are water, phenolphthalein (or pH test paper), vinegar, iodine solution and alcohol.

Integration/Linkages:

physical science, mathematics, problem solving skills, environmental science, earth/space science, biology, scientific inquiry skills, analysis and representation of data, graphing skills,

 

Interactions of Matter
Standard Number: 3.0 Interactions of Matter

Standard: The student will examine the interactions of matter

Learning Expectations:

The student will:

3.1 investigate chemical bonding.

3.2 analyze chemical reactions.

3.3 explore the mathematics of chemical formulas and equations.

 

Performance Indicators State:

As documented through state assessment,

Level 1, the student is able to

· distinguish between a chemical symbol and a chemical formula, given examples. · · identify the parts (reactants or products) of a chemical reaction, given a balanced chemical equation. · · identify the types of chemical reactions (composition, decomposition, double replacement, single replacement), given a balanced equation. · · determine the number of atoms or molecules of a particular substance, given a balanced equation.·

Level 2, the student is able to

· distinguish between ionic and covalent compounds, given binary formulas. · · identify the formula for a compound using a periodic table and a list of common ions, given the name of the compound · · identify the name of compounds and common acids (sulfuric acid, nitric acid, hydrochloric acid, acetic acid, and phosphoric acid), using a periodic table and a list of common ions. · · select a correctly-balanced chemical equation, given examples. · · recognize a balanced chemical equation using appropriate symbols, given a word equation. · · convert between any two of the following quantities of a substance: ·

mass /number of moles/ number of particles /molar volume (at STP)

· determine molar ratios expressed in balanced chemical equations.(check later) · · analyze percent composition of the elements in a compound, given the formula. · · solve mass to mass stoichiometry problems·

Level 3, the student is able to

· identify and solve different types of stoichiometry problems (volume (at STP) to mass, moles to mass, etc…) ·

 

Performance Indicators Teacher:

As documented through teacher observation,

Level 1, the student is able to

· write a balanced equation and identify the reactants and products.·

Level 2, the student is able to

· draw models of atoms bonding ionically and covalently. · · write the formulas for compounds, given the names of compounds. · · write the names of compounds given examples of chemical formulas using the stock system. · · write a balanced chemical equation and classify as to type, given a word description of a chemical reaction. · · calculate and measure the actual molar mass of a substance and relate it to the number of particles. · · make an analogy relating “dozen” and “mole”; convert using a dozen of items and compare to a mole of items. · · research careers that relate to interactions of matter, such as pharmacist technician, industrial chemist, chemical technician, chemical engineer, etc.·

Level 3, the student is able to

· draw shapes of molecules and label bond angles, bond polarity and molecule polarity, given a formula. · · predict amounts of product given mole or mass amounts of reactants in an actual lab experience and compare actual yield to theoretical yield. · · predict the products of a single or double replacement chemical reaction, given an activity series and a solubility chart. · · use percentage composition to determine the empirical or molecular formula of an unknown substance.·

Sample Task:

1) Using molecular model kits, have students construct shapes of various molecules.

2) Using marshmallows or gum drops and toothpicks, have students construct elements and compounds involved in a balanced chemical equation.

3) Direct students to calculate the molar mass of a substance and measure that amount into a baggie to demonstrate mole amounts.

4) Have students make a model of the molar volume of a gas using balloons or boxes.

 

Integration/Linkages:

physical science, mathematics, art skills, measurement skills and tools, problem solving skills, scale and model, biology, nutrition science, Lifetime Wellness, Geometry, Cosmetology, and Building Trades

 

 

 

Solutions and Acids/Bases
Standard Number: 4.0 Solutions and Acids/Bases

Standard: The student will investigate the characteristics of solutions including acids and bases.

Learning Expectations:

4.1 The student will investigate the characteristics of solutions.

4.2 The student will investigate the characteristics of acids and bases.

 

Performance Indicators State:

As documented through state assessment,

Level 1, the student is able to

· classify substances as acid or base, given the formula of an inorganic acid or base.·

Level 2, the student is able to

· identify the solute and solvent in a solid, liquid or gaseous solution, given its composition. · · classify a solution as saturated, unsaturated or supersaturated, given the composition of the solution and a solubility graph. · · calculate the concentration of a solution in terms of molarity or mass percent, given mass of solute and mass or volume of solution. · · classify a substance as an acid or a base, given at least two of the following properties: color of litmus, color of phenolphthalein, taste, pH and slippery or non-slippery. ·

Level 3, the student is able to

· predict the products of a neutralization reaction involving inorganic acids and bases, given the reactants.·

 

Performance Indicators Teacher:

As documented through teacher observation,

Level 1, the student is able to

· demonstrate the factors (temperature, stirring, particle size and concentration) that affect the rate at which a solute dissolves. · · investigate the acidity/basicity of substances by observing their effect on various indicators.·

Level 2, the student is able to

· describe how to prepare a dilute solution from a concentrated solution of known molarity. · · perform a neutralization reaction. · · research careers that relate to solutions, such as cosmetologist, environmental scientist, water quality control technician, artist, etc.·

Level 3, the student is able to

· investigate colligative properties, i.e. the effect on freezing point and boiling point when a solute is added to a solvent. · · demonstrate knowledge of neutralization reactions by performing a titration. · · calculate molality of solutions. · · classify a solution as neutral, acidic, or basic, or calculate its pH, given the hydrogen ion concentration or hydroxide ion concentration.·

 

Sample Task:

Students will classify various household substances as acid or base using various natural and synthetic indicators.

Interactions/Linkages:

biology, physical science, mathematics, earth science, ecology, measuring skills and tools, critical thinking skills, problem solving skills, calculator and computer- based skills, industry, research, writing, communications, science and society, history, careers, economics, natural resources, scale and model, food science, engineering, cosmetology, and Auto Technology

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